Research progress of sustainable cities and its implications for national territory spatial plan

ZHU Xiao-dan, YE Chao, LI Si-meng

JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES ›› 2020, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (9) : 2120-2133.

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JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES ›› 2020, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (9) : 2120-2133. DOI: 10.31497/zrzyxb.20200907
Resources and Strategy

Research progress of sustainable cities and its implications for national territory spatial plan

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Sustainable cities are the focus of attention in many areas. The advent of the intelligent era and the evolution of the network society have promoted the study of the relationship between technology and sustainable development. Sustainable cities need innovative research methods and contents. The domestic academic circles have not paid enough attention to the forefront of sustainable cities. The national territory spatial plan also needs to draw on and integrate the relevant theories of sustainable cities. With the help of CiteSpace software, this article systematically reviews the current research situations and development trend of sustainable cities. The paper analyzes its evolution and research hotspots, and finds that the research on sustainable cities has mainly experienced four stages: germination, rise, growth and diffusion. International sustainable cities research mainly focuses on three aspects: climate change, urban governance and smart cities. The research changes from "sustainable" to "smart sustainable". Big data-assisted urban planning has become a trend, and the co-governance of diverse community stakeholders has gradually increased. However, the research and practice of smart sustainable cities in China are insufficient, the evaluation index system of sustainable cities is not perfect, the international experience is lacking, and the research on joint urban-rural governance is insufficient. The combination of the new sustainable cities research framework and the territorial development plan will be the key to future research. The practice of sustainable cities in China is not just for cities, but for urban-rural co-governance, which is also a concentrated manifestation of sustainability in terms of time, space and society. In the evaluation index system of sustainable cities, rural development indicators should be considered. And the issues of rural intelligence, environmental compatibility and technology compatibility in the national territory spatial plan are also important aspects of sustainable cities. Sustainable cities should focus on the coordinated development of nature, society and technology, not only to protect the environment and natural resources, but also to reform the urban and rural governance model and system. The national territory spatial plan is an important foundation for China to achieve sustainable cities. Starting from the proposition of "urban-rural China", urban-rural co-governance is the focus of China's sustainable urban development and research, and is also the main content of the national territorial development planning. Only through the reform of the combination of multi-dimensional systems can the concept of sustainable cities be implemented, and the integration of urban and rural areas can be achieved with the help of intelligent technology. In the future, China's sustainable cities research and practice will become a focus.

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sustainable cities / urbanization / national territorial spatial plan / urban governance / smart cities / CiteSpace

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ZHU Xiao-dan, YE Chao, LI Si-meng. Research progress of sustainable cities and its implications for national territory spatial plan[J]. JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES, 2020, 35(9): 2120-2133 https://doi.org/10.31497/zrzyxb.20200907
可持续发展与城镇化密不可分。世界环境与发展委员会在1987年出版的《我们共同的未来》中,首次正式提出可持续发展并将其定义为“既满足当代人的需要,又不对后代人满足其需要的能力构成危害的发展”[1]。全球范围内的快速城镇化使得可持续发展面临严峻挑战,可持续城市也就成为自然科学与社会科学共同关注的焦点话题。有研究估计2030年城市扩张将导致全球耕地面积减少1.8%~2.4%,1/4的全球耕地损失将发生在中国[2],城市发展模式与物种进化之间也相互影响[3]。自然环境与城市社会问题交织,成为全球可持续发展的关键。
城镇化既是全球可持续发展挑战的主要原因,也是潜在的解决方案[4,5,6]。1996年第二届联合国人居会议上首次提出可持续城市[7],其后有大量国际会议和项目涌现[8]。联合国在《2030年可持续发展议程》中提出17项可持续发展目标,其中第11个目标是“建设包容、安全、有抵御灾害能力和可持续的城市和人居环境”[9]。2019年,联合国人居署第一次会议提出实现“支持包容、安全、有弹性和可持续的城市和人类住区”和“加强城市农村联系以实现可持续的城市化”[10]。可持续城市的研究也在推进,包含可持续城市的评估、概念和理论辨析、经典案例研究等[11],并由最初的生态城市、紧凑型城市等城市形态研究向智慧城市转变。中国关于可持续城市的研究相较于国际起步较晚,前期主要集中于经济学、生态学和地理学三个学科,之后涉及社会学、城市规划和建筑学等学科,聚焦可持续城市形态、模式、机制和综合评价等方面[12,13],具有跨学科特征。
可持续城市与国土空间规划有较为密切的联系。“空间规划”（spatial planning）是由《欧洲空间发展展望（ESDP）》发展而来,但它不是规划文件,欧盟并没有统一的空间规划体系[14]。2019年,中共中央、国务院印发《关于建立国土空间规划体系并监督实施的若干意见》,指出“国土空间规划是国家空间发展的指南、可持续发展的空间蓝图,是各类开发保护建设活动的基本依据”[15]。国土空间规划指导可持续城市和乡村的建设。将可持续城市与空间规划联系起来看,国土空间规划不仅涉及自然环境和土地利用空间,还包含社会空间[16]。国土空间规划中的土地利用与资源分配,关键还在于对“空间”的重新认识。相比国际研究而言,中国可持续城市相关研究还不足,更缺乏可持续城市与国土空间规划结合的研究。随着中国自然资源部的成立和国土空间规划的正式提出,统筹自然与社会空间,落实“多规合一”成为核心工作,迫切需要借鉴可持续城市的前沿理念与关键技术。本文基于CiteSpace软件,通过检索国内外文献数据库,分析可持续城市研究的发展历程、热点问题和趋势,提出可持续城市研究的新概念框架,并结合国土空间规划进行深入探讨。

1 可持续城市研究概况

本文首先对国内外两大检索平台——“Web of Science”和“中国知网”的可持续城市研究文献进行分析,比较国内外研究差异,然后通过国际文献的共被引分析和关键词分析等,总结研究轨迹、热点问题和变化趋势,并通过期刊、来源国等内容的统计分析,对比国内外可持续城市研究的国家合作网络等方面的差异。具体检索方式为：数据库为“Web of Science”的核心数据库SCI和SSCI,完全匹配检索主题词“sustainable cities”和“sustainable city”,文献类型是文章（article）和综述（review）,检索时间范围是1982—2018年,去重分析后共计748条记录,检索时间是2019年4月26日;在“中国知网”则只检索期刊,主题词为“可持续城市”,数据库为核心期刊和CSSCI索引期刊,时间设置的开始为“不限”,结束是“2018年”,检索结果共有96篇,通过手动删除无效记录9篇,去重分析后共计87条文献记录,检索时间为2019年5月24日。

1.1 可持续城市研究历程与阶段

对可持续城市定义和内涵,存在多种解读。有人认为可持续城市的定义应当宽泛,过于详细会使得利益冲突频繁[8,17];有人认为可持续必须量化[18,19]。广义讲,可持续城市是满足可持续发展理念的城市[20]。新型城镇化的一个重要内涵就是可持续性,即城市发展需要考虑到资源节约和环境友好、生物多样性保护和气候变化[21],实现经济、社会、生态三者的动态平衡[22,23,24]。一个普遍认可的定义是：“可持续城市是城市形态结构合理,具有应对可承受风险的弹性,系统代谢效率高,提供可持续的生态、社会、经济方面福利并向着不断寻求三者动态平衡发展演进”[7]。信息化、城镇化与可持续发展的结合则使可持续智能城市受到关注[25,26,27]。
从1991—2018年,可持续城市研究文献不断增加（图1）。总体而言,国际文献数量在2010年左右猛增,国内文献数量虽总体上在增加,但相对变化平缓。
Fig. 1 The quantitative changes of Chinese and English literature on "sustainable cities" from 1991 to 2018

图1 1991—2018年“可持续城市”为主题的中英文文献数量变化情况

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通过CiteSpace软件,对“Web of Science”检索到的文献进行共被引分析,用“主题词”作为聚类分析的标题依据,采用对数似然算法（LLR）进行聚类命名,最终将分析结果用时间线视图（Time-line view）进行呈现。相同聚类主题的文献分布在同一条横线,同一个组别的横线长短表示了该聚类所在的大致时间;另外,节点大小反映了高聚类文献的中心性,中心性越大节点越大。由图2可知,可持续城市研究在2005年左右开始爆发增长,尤其是2010年后开始呈现研究主题的猛增。研究主题主要包括斯德哥尔摩年（stockholm year）、变化的新陈代谢（changing metabolism）、城市可持续发展指数（city sustainability index）、后碳城市（post-carbon cities）、紧凑型城市（compact city）、环境工具（environmental tool）、城市生态系统服务（urban ecosystem service）等。
Fig. 2 Time-line view of co-cited international literature analysis during 1998-2018

图2 1998—2018年国际文献共被引分析的时间线图

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根据研究文献变化特点,可持续城市研究可分为四个发展阶段（图2、图3）。
Fig. 3 The co-occurrence of keywords in international sustainable cities research from 1998 to 2018

图3 1998—2018年国际可持续城市研究的关键词共现图

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1991—1995年：萌芽阶段。研究文献少,1991—1994年年均一篇。研究主要聚焦于可持续城市的概念与框架构建,一些国际组织和政府机构开始开展可持续城市的实践。
1996—2005年：兴起阶段。文献数量缓慢上升,中国从1999年开始出现第一篇文章。该阶段主要聚焦于城市新陈代谢研究,以此量化城市自然环境负荷,例如通过分析香港1971—1997年城市新陈代谢趋势,发现城市土地、大气和水发生了系统性超载[28]。
2006—2010年：增长阶段。城市新陈代谢的研究强化[29,30],后碳城市研究涌现,开始注重城市可持续指数研究。斯德哥尔摩作为全球性环境会议地和可持续发展的典范,出现在很多文章中。可持续城市与水环境、气候变化和景观、绿地规划相关的研究受到重视[31,32,33,34,35]。
2011—2018年：扩散阶段。文献数量激增（从43篇增长到157篇）,传统环境规划对可持续城市建设的影响依旧受到学者青睐[36,37,38,39],开始由可持续城市发展模式向智能城市转变。

1.2 研究热点及其特征

通过对国际文献进行关键词提取和共现分析,得到国际可持续城市研究的关键词共现图谱（图3）。关键词所在年份代表该关键词首次出现的时间,点的大小代表之后所有出现该关键词的频次大小,连线代表在该年的一篇文章中同时出现了连线的两个关键词。可持续城市的研究热点变化为：1998年首次出现可持续性、可持续城市、可持续发展、城市、城市的可持续性和政策,2003年首次出现系统,2006年首次出现气候变化和能源,2008年首次出现模型,2010年首次出现治理和城镇化,2012年首次出现管理、结构和生态系统服务, 2014年首次出现智慧城市。国际可持续城市的研究热点主要有四个特征。
（1）长期关注的三个主题：气候变化、城市治理与智慧城市
关键词频次和中心性分析表明（表1）,“smart city”（智慧城市）、“climate change”（气候变化）、“management”（管理）和“governance”（治理）等具有较高频次和较高的中心性。智慧城市的频次较高,但是中心性不是最强,其重要性还在上升;气候变化一直是研究热点,其中心性和智慧城市类似;治理的中心性最高,是可持续城市研究最为重要和最受关注的领域。
Table 1 Top 20 keywords of high frequency and its centrality in sustainable cities research from 1998 to 2018

表1 1998—2018年可持续城市研究前20个高频关键词及其中心性

序号 频次 中心性 年份 关键词 序号 频次 中心性 年份 关键词
1 194 0.16 2003 city 11 39 0.1 2011 urbanization
2 193 0.15 2004 sustainable city 12 38 0.06 2007 energy
3 107 0.05 2006 sustainability 13 35 0.05 2004 environment
4 57 0.02 2003 system 14 35 0.03 2004 China
5 52 0.16 1998 sustainable development 15 34 0.04 2013 framework
6 47 0.05 2014 smart city 16 34 0.01 2012 model
7 47 0.05 2007 climate change 17 33 0.05 2007 urban
8 46 0.17 2012 management 18 31 0.02 2013 performance
9 40 0.04 1998 urban sustainability 19 30 0.05 2007 policy
10 39 0.06 2010 governance 20 29 0.04 2012 land use
城市的气候变化适应力与可持续发展密不可分[36]。水循环、城市绿化景观以及气候变化的治理不仅包括地方或国家行动,而且是跨越边界的全球、国家和地方行动者之间的多尺度协调[40,41]。城市的新陈代谢增加意味着城市会丧失更多的农田、森林和物种多样性,同时也会有更多的污染,导致地下水位变化,资源、能源枯竭,有毒物质积累等问题,进一步影响可持续城市发展[30]。
城市治理是可持续城市研究的焦点,跨区域、跨层级的城市治理尤为重要。城市治理导向决定了其可持续水平,如利物浦虽然是大城市,但汽车拥有量低,步行和自行车出行比例高,因此能源消耗相对很低[42]。只关注技术模型和测度可持续城市而忽视城市治理是偏颇的[43]。城市治理是一个涉及多尺度、自然与人文交互、多主体共治的复杂过程,需要因地制宜。比如,不同的城市公园由于不同植被覆盖情况、不同季节以及其他特征对城市具有不同的缓解作用,甚至有些公园反而增强了城市热岛效应[32];不同的绿地景观对城市生态系统恢复力的影响也不同[34]。
在可持续城市形态研究上,紧凑型城市在前期得到关注,但它并不符合宜居城市所具有的低密度特征[44,45]。近年来,“智慧城市”越来越受到重视[46,47,48]。智慧城市与可持续是兼容互通的[49],它不仅是一种城市形态,更是一种通过技术提升居民生活的理念。
（2）由“可持续”向“可持续智能”转变
智慧城市与可持续城市的关系需要厘清。可持续城市更强调生态环境,智慧城市则更偏重技术,“可持续智能城市”（smart sustainable cities）综合了两者优势[50]。技术本身应该服务可持续并提高效率,物联网的大数据应用能够为可持续智能城市带来环境效益[51,52,53]。在社区规划、公民参与、家庭管理上应用智能技术,也是可持续城市的体现[54,55,56,57]。
可持续智能城市被认为是当前和未来城市发展的目标[58]。一些研究倾向于将现有的可持续城市模型与智慧城市的方法结合,以实现可持续智能城市的目标[59,60]。可持续智能城市包括六个维度：智慧经济、智慧环境、智慧治理、智慧生活、智慧机动性、智慧人力资源[61,62]。韩国仁川松岛IBD、阿布扎比马斯达尔新城、葡萄牙波尔图信息谷、挪威智慧博德都是通过利用智能科技实现可持续城市发展的典型案例[58]。但是,也有学者认为可持续城市与智慧城市是两种不同类型的城市,应该分别评估[63]。通过分析英国城市的智慧水平对二氧化碳排放的影响,发现两者的关系不是线性的,而且智慧对可持续的影响也没有随着时间改变[64]。在智慧城市对社会平等、环境保护的影响研究上还存在较多争议[65]。通过数字技术改善环境问题尚需更深入的研究[66]。
（3）大数据辅助城市规划成为趋势
智慧城市的特征是广泛而智能地使用数字技术,推动可持续的经济和社会发展[67,68]。智能计算是智慧城市的技术核心,帮助城市串联各个行业,进行城市治理[58]。物联网技术是智慧城市的核心,推动了智慧城市仪器化、互联和智能化的建设[69]。大数据作为一项重要技术,已经被广泛用于智慧城市建设的各个领域[70,71],如监控与预测空气质量、智能交通、城市规划等。
面对城市快速发展的诸多问题,城市规划越来越需要大数据的支持和辅助[72]。技术和城市的融合是城市规划和治理的必然趋势[73]。利用智能技术辅助可持续城市建设的规划方法不断被深入探索。通过城市物联网的建设,城市规划中需要考虑更多利用智能方式改变人的出行、入住行为等方面[74,75]。社交网络的大数据分析可以帮助城市管理者决策[67]。大数据平台已经成为城市规划的基础。
（4）社区多元主体共治增强
城市的可持续性与消费者、企业、社会组织和政府等利益群体密切相关[76]。可持续社区的设计和规划是可持续城市的基础[77]。不同社会群体中有不同的可持续认定和需求,社会团体的参与性更有利于实现可持续的目标[78]。斯德哥尔摩的社区园艺就是一个典型案例,在社区和政府等利益群体合作过程中,由于责任模糊和缺乏领导,社区园艺的可持续性降低[55]。向利益相关者提供相关的数据和服务平台与资源对可持续城市也很重要[79]。

1.3 合作研究网络与重要期刊

可持续城市研究主要集中在欧美地区。美国在可持续城市的国际合作中占据最重要的位置,不论是对外合作次数还是中心性都位于首位;排在前20位以欧洲国家居多;虽然中国合作文献的次数高于英国,但文献的中心性居于第三,中国文献量较高但是学者合作的国家数量低于英国（图4）。
Fig. 4 International cooperation of countries in "sustainable cities" research from 1998 to 2018

图4 1998—2018年“可持续城市”国际研究的国家合作情况

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国际可持续城市研究期刊包括可持续科学、城市、景观、人居、生态等学科,国内期刊涉及规划、建筑、资源、城市和水资源研究等领域。国际期刊有专门关于可持续的期刊,如Nature Sustainability、Sustainable Cities and Society、Sustainability和International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology等,但国内以可持续发展为主题的期刊很少。国内外可持续城市研究期刊多集中在生态环境类,如Journal of Cleaner Production、Journal of Industrial Ecology、《生态经济》和《环境保护》等（表2）。
Table 2 The contrast of top 10 journal between international research and Chinese research

表2 排名前十的中外文期刊对比

序号 文献数量/篇 期刊名称 序号 文献数量/篇 期刊名称
1 73 Sustainability 1 16 城市规划学刊
2 44 Sustainable Cities and Society 2 4 建筑学报
3 36 Cities 3 3 中国人口·资源与环境
4 23 Journal of Cleaner Production 4 3 城市发展研究
5 22 Landscape and Urban Planning 5 3 地理科学进展
6 17 Habitat International 6 3 给水排水
7 16 Journal of Industrial Ecology 7 3 中国给水排水
8 12 International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 8 3 中国园林
9 10 Urban Studies 9 3 生态经济
10 9 Energy and Buildings 10 3 环境保护
注：外文期刊基于共被引分析得出前十,中文期刊基于文献数量排名得出前十。

2 国内可持续城市研究的不足

中国城市的可持续发展水平还不高[80]。国内研究热点由可持续城市、可持续发展到城市设计和城市形态,发展到2017年的地理信息、联合国和高层论坛等,表明了智慧城市（地理信息）和治理的转向（图5）。
Fig. 5 The co-occurrence of keywords in Chinese sustainable cities research

图5 中国可持续城市研究的关键词共现图

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（1）可持续智能城市研究缺乏
可持续智能城市在国内的关注度较低,目前研究多聚焦城市的发展模式和形态[81,82]。但是,过度争论城市形态与模式差异也不利于可持续城市研究和实践。例如城市形态的相关政策虽然对环境质量、社会公平等有积极作用,但对能源消耗和土地利用的影响非常小[83]。虽然城市的可持续性、可持续城市和城市的可持续发展三者关系受到学者关注[84],但缺乏智能化与可持续发展关系的深入讨论。
（2）可持续城市评价指标体系还不完善
可持续城市的理论模型、空间准则和评价指标体系指导了可持续城市的实践。从生态系统服务和福利角度,建立可持续福利的定量表述模型[85]。可划分城市区域、城市和街区三个层次,来确定可持续城市空间规划控制的准则体系[86]。传统可持续城市理念将经济、社会、环境三者视作彼此独立、相互作用的三个方面,忽视了其间联系,需要建立嵌套—融合发展的新模型[4]。这些研究没有综合考虑智能、大数据等方面的指标,评估体系和理论模型需要及时更新,才能满足新形势下可持续城市和国土空间规划的需要。
（3）国际经验借鉴不足与案例研究匮乏
国内研究虽然有大量综述文章和部分实证研究,但对国际经验借鉴还不够,缺少对相关案例的深入比较和分析。中国国土空间规划要积极总结国外的成功经验,建立系统的研究和规划方法。例如,回溯法可以处理长期的城市可持续性的解决方案[27],在建筑设计方面采用的移情设计方法有助于实现可持续的目标[87],利用智能化提升文化的可持续性等[88]。基于可持续城市的国土空间规划,需要综合考虑城乡关系。要缩小或消除城乡差距,需要在国家层面进行战略规划,农民工市民化等问题都需要得到关注[89]。
（4）城乡共同治理研究不足
发展中国家与发达国家在城乡治理方面存在差距,总体上发达国家在法律、政治和经济等方面的制度更完善,逐渐从城乡对立走向城乡融合。而像中国这样的发展中国家,还存在城乡分割问题。尤其是严格的户籍制度等一系列城市偏向政策,重视城市治理而忽视乡村治理,导致城乡隔离问题严重,传统乡村治理模式逐渐变得不可持续[90]。城乡共同治理因而成为发展中国家建设可持续城市的重要内容。

3 可持续城市研究框架及对国土空间规划的启示

结合国内外可持续城市的研究,本文提出了可持续城市研究的新框架,试图从自然、社会和技术三个维度,将可持续城市与国土空间规划结合进行研究（图6）。
Fig. 6 The framework of sustainable cities

图6 可持续城市研究框架

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根据研究框架图,环形由内向外分为四个圈层,二至四层各分为三个部分,各部分之间由曲状的虚线分割,同时由虚线构成的箭头代表各部分的交流、转化等相互作用。中心圈层的可持续城市是核心和目标;向外扩展的第二圈层,分为三个主要方向：技术、自然和社会;分别对应可持续城市研究的三个方向：智慧城市、环境友好和城乡共治;最外圈层所对应的是国土空间规划中的三个要点：“人工智能”“绿水青山”和“多规合一”。三个圈层既相互对应、向外扩展,也相互影响,同时各圈层的三个部分也相互交融。
传统可持续发展研究关注自然、社会和经济三个范畴,而智能化的快速发展改变了自然和社会的关系。智能化不仅有助于缓解经济发展和自然保护的矛盾,也革新了治理的方式。治理是可持续城市实践的核心,而城乡共治是社会治理的核心。“人工智能”“绿水青山”和“多规合一”是现阶段我国发展的热词,国土空间规划的编制特别需要关注“智能化”在保护“绿水青山”中能够发挥的重要作用,并实现治理的“智能化”。
“技术”是可持续城市的动力。“大数据”和“物联网”等智能技术的发展,产生了智慧城市,国土空间规划可以基于此建立统一的信息化平台,借鉴智慧城市的研究成果,通过智能化的城市生产、生活网络将城市的信息数据整合为“一张图”。智能化信息平台可以使更多利益群体更容易参与治理。欧美国家的可持续性城市空间规划坚持“全球思考、地方行动”（think globally,act locally）的理念[16]。瑞典是可持续城市建设的成功典范,其城市规划目标倾向于建设高密度、功能混合的城市,城市更注重交互合作,通过构建合作平台、组织研讨会和筹集项目资金等方式,有效地提高了国家和不同主体对城市可持续发展的关注度[91]。可持续城市需要跨越地理尺度、打破城市边界,增强城市治理的工作者和各利益群体之间的联系,发挥地方、国家和全球环境政治的作用[43]。除了政府部门和规划师,公益组织、企业、团体等利益相关者都与规划密切相关,需要大力推进多元主体参与共治。
自然环境保护是人类可持续发展的基础,“绿水青山就是金山银山”,环境友好是发展的最终目标。中国的生态文明体制改革是国土空间规划改革的基石,国土空间规划的重点就是确定“三区三线”[92]。国土空间规划中的三线（生态保护红线、永久基本农田、城镇开发边界）应自上而下进行划定,综合不同层级国土空间规划的任务和不同层级政府管理的事权,实施分级管理[93]。
城乡共治是可持续智能城市的关键。与可持续智能城市最相关的七个方向（城市规划、城市基础设施、可持续性、交通、公共安全、卫生和公共政策）都与城市治理相关[94]。对于规划冲突、规划编制复杂和跨专业隔阂等问题,国土空间规划编制是关键,亟需建立新的国土空间规划体系和制度,促进资源的可持续利用[95,96]。此外,在进行空间规划管制的同时,也应当形成地区间的横向财政转移支付机制,促进区域协同发展[97]。
可持续城市需要关注自然、技术和治理三方面,将国土空间规划与可持续发展和智慧发展的目标统一。可持续城市应当作为一个方向而不是目标[98]。而可持续智能城市则是亟待开展的研究方向。

4 结论

可持续城市研究主要经历了萌芽、兴起、增长、扩散四个阶段。国际研究聚焦于气候变化、城市治理与智慧城市三方面。“可持续智能城市”已成为趋势。随着大数据、物联网等技术的应用,基于社区的多元主体共治是可持续城市研究和实践的核心。
欧美国家主导了可持续城市研究,美国在可持续城市的国际合作研究中占据最重要的位置。可持续城市研究期刊涵盖了可持续科学与城市、景观、地理、人居、生态等多个学科和领域。中国需要增加可持续智能城市的相关研究和实践,完善可持续城市的评价指标体系,增加典型案例研究,结合国情重视城乡共治,并将这些理念渗透在国土空间规划编制中。中国的乡村在城市行政管理之下,但实践中城乡分割和二元结构突出,所以,中国的可持续城市实践并非仅针对城市,而是城乡共治,这也是可持续在时间、空间、社会方面的集中体现。在可持续城市的评价指标体系中,应当考虑乡村的发展指标,国土空间规划中乡村的智能化、环境与技术的兼容问题也是可持续城市的重要内容。
可持续城市应当以自然、社会和技术三者的协调发展为核心。不仅要保护环境和自然资源,也要改革城乡治理模式和体制。国土空间规划是中国实现可持续城市的重要基础。从“城乡中国”的命题出发,城乡共治是中国可持续城市发展和研究的重点,也是国土空间规划的主要内容。通过多维制度结合的改革,才能贯彻可持续城市的理念,并以智能化的技术辅助实现城乡融合。未来中国的可持续城市研究和实践也会成为全球关注的焦点。

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Abstract

That green-spaces relieve urban heat is well known in urban landscape planning. Scientific information on what kinds of green-spaces best reduce heat, however, is still largely unknown. This is a preliminary study aimed at (1) devising a method to detect and compare the local cool-island intensities of various urban parks; (2) verifying that this local cool-island intensity differs among parks; (3) determining whether this local cool-island intensity is related to park characteristics.

Results from air–temperature measurements in and around 61 Taipei city parks showed that urban parks were on average cooler than their surroundings, confirming the term “urban cool-islands.” However, approximately one-fifth of the parks were warmer than their urban surroundings. At noon in summer, parks with ≥50% paved coverage and little tree- and shrub-cover were on average warmer than their surroundings. Large parks were on average cooler than the smaller ones, but this relationship was non-linear.

In Taipei, parks differed in their local cool-island intensity and this intensity can be related to park characteristics. Before further details concerning better planning and design approaches to mitigate urban heat-islands can be addressed, a neighborhood-scaled understanding of the urban microclimate is first needed as a basis.

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International efforts to preserve the natural environment are mainly concerned with large, bio-diverse and relatively untouched ecosystems or with individual animal or vegetal species, either endangered or threatened with extinction. Much less attention is being paid to that type of nature close to where people live and work, to small-scale green areas in cities and to their benefits to people. Increasing empirical evidence, however, indicates that the presence of natural areas contributes to the quality of life in many ways. Besides many environmental and ecological services, urban nature provides important social and psychological benefits to human societies, which enrich human life with meanings and emotions. The main concern of this paper is to address the importance of urban nature for citizens’ well being and for the sustainability of the city they inhabit. Some results of a survey conducted among visitors of an urban park in Amsterdam (The Netherlands) are presented and discussed. The issues investigated concern people’s motives for urban nature, the emotional dimension involved in the experience of nature and its importance for people’s general well being. Results confirm that the experience of nature in urban environment is source of positive feelings and beneficial services, which fulfill important immaterial and non-consumptive human needs. Implications for the sustainability of the city will be analyzed and discussed.

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Takeaway for practice: Urban form policies can have important impacts on local environmental quality, economy, crowding, and social equity, but their influence on energy consumption and land use is very modest; compact development should not automatically be associated with the preferred spatial growth strategy.]]>
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Abstract

Including greenery in human settlements is a tradition deeply rooted in antiquity, with diverse expressions. Realization of the green city ideal has changed with prevailing social–economic–political regimes and landscape styles. Variations in land use and development mode have generated green spaces of different geometry, distribution and composition. The compact city incurs inherent physical and institutional obstacles, restricting the quantity and quality of amenity vegetation. Recent research findings in arboriculture, urban forestry, urban ecology, urban planning and urban geography suggest alternative strategies for both existing and new green sites. A multidisciplinary interpretation distils relevant principles and practices to facilitate greening in packed neighborhoods and overcome major constraints. Measures are proposed to guard green spaces from intrusion, intensification and infilling to preserve both sites and conditions for plants, wildlife and ecological functions. New developments and redevelopments, with suitable encouragement and incentives, can earmark enough new green areas with appropriate location and design. Natural enclaves, especially woodlands, with high biodiversity and complex biomass should be incorporated into the future built environment. Partnership among government, developers and citizens should nurture the community’s determination and capability to augment greening. A coordinating body to mobilize initiatives and efforts could gel disparate stakeholders and bring concerted actions.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2004.04.004
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026427510400054X
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